 What is Deep-Sea Mining? Approximately 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by its oceans, yet human technology has only enabled us to explore our oceans in recent centuries. Shrouded in total darkness, the deep-ocean environment has proved difficult to explore due to its extremely low temperatures and crushing water pressure. Even with modern technology, only 27.3% of the seafloor has been mapped, and less than 0.001% of the deep-ocean floor has been visually explored. However, from what is known, many regions of the vast ocean contain valuable minerals essential to modern technologies. These range from common minerals such as nickel, copper, and cobalt, which are essential for modern-day technology, to more scarce elements such as dysprosium, neodymium, and gadolinium, which are commonly used in high-power magnets and nuclear reactor technology. These minerals are found as polymetallic nodules, a potato-sized sediment that forms over millions of years. Deep-sea mining techniques focus on collecting, refining, and processing these polymetallic nodules from the ocean floor. Currently, the most common process of deep-sea mining is to “vacuum” the ocean floor with heavy machinery.  This process is proven to negatively impact coastal and marine ecosystems. In response to concerns over marine degradation, the UN formed the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in 1982 to regulate activities on the ocean floor. Any government bodies or private companies that wish to explore the ocean floor for mining or research must enter into a contract with the ISA. Currently, 22 parties are in contract with the ISA, pursuing a lawful means of exploration. Despite this regulatory framework, deep-sea mining still poses threats to marine ecosystems. Complicating matters, many government and commercial actors recognize that this process is still more sustainable than traditional land-based mining. Traditional land mining often comes with its own set of problems, as evidenced by the often-cited deforestation in Indonesia caused by nickel mining or human rights issues in Congo’s cobalt mines. Deep-sea mining is particularly attractive for countries with limited terrestrial resources, such as Japan, as it enables coastal states to obtain access to mineral reserves that do not exist within their own territory. Japan as the Spearhead Among nations that are pursuing this new advancement, Japan has been the most aggressive in recent years. The Japanese government has made it public that research on deep-sea mining is a top priority through their Strategic Innovation Program (SIP). This document, released as a five-year plan by the Cabinet Office, outlines Japan’s innovation goals, which include achieving fully operational commercial deep-sea mining by 2030. In 2012, the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) and Japan’s cabinet office initiated several studies to collect sediments from the sea floor, finding evidence of a potential mineral deposit. Since then, JAMSTEC has continued research expeditions and tested deep-sea mining technologies off the coast of the Ibaraki prefecture. In early 2026, the agency discovered that Japan’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) around Minami-Torishima island is rich in what they call “rare-earth mud”, containing minerals such as dysprosium, yttrium, gadolinium, and neodymium, presenting an opportunity for Japan to start a domestic mineral extraction industry. Government officials have recognized the scale of this achievement, with spokesman Kei Sato stating that the retrieval of these samples is “a meaningful achievement both in terms of economic security and comprehensive maritime development.” JAMSTEC also revealed that by 2027, it aims to retrieve 350 tons of this rare-earth mud daily to analyze the profitability. The Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry suspects that, eventually, a daily retrieval of 3500 tons will be needed to fulfill profitable commercialization. To achieve this goal, the government has already allocated 16 billion yen (about USD $100 million) to this project in the 2025 budget. Beyond extraction, SIP outlines the broader goal of developing autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) domestically. The AUVs are intended to support deep-sea mining operations by surveying the sea floor to pinpoint the location of resources and monitoring environmental conditions such as seismic activity. The emphasis on the AUV to be domestically designed and produced reflects Japan’s stance on deep-sea mining as a matter of economic security. Furthermore, the SIP indicates that Japan looks to become a pioneer in this field and provide allied nations with Japanese technology to achieve similar deep-sea exploration capacities. Japan’s effort on rare-earth extraction extends beyond domestic water into international cooperation. Following a meeting on Indo-Pacific energy security between the Japanese Minister of Industry Ryosei Akazawa, US Interior Secretary Doug Burgum, and the administrator of the US Environmental Protection Agency Lee Zeldin, the Japanese government announced that Japan and the US have entered an official agreement to launch a joint rapid response group in case of supply chain disruption. Why the Rush? Security Against China Considering the geopolitical situation, Japan’s sudden rush to develop its rare-earth mineral industry is not a surprise. In recent history, the rare-earth supply chain has been dominated by China. For example, China owns or has ties with more than half of the cobalt mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo. These minerals are then exported to China for processing. Currently, China produces 93% of the world’s rare-earth magnets, which are essential to products such as computer hard disks and MRI scanners. Japan's economy is heavily reliant on an electronics industry that relies on Chinese rare-earth magnets, and like other manufacturers, it is not immune to Chinese dominance in that market. The Chinese government is not oblivious to the strategic leverage that comes with dominance in the rare-earth mineral industry; there have been many examples where the PRC actively uses rare-earth minerals as a political tool. Thus, finding a way to subvert China’s control over rare-earth minerals has been a long-term strategic goal for many rivaling countries. The recent tensions in the East China Sea have made this situation worse for Japan. In 2010, China imposed a trade restriction on rare-earth minerals over the Senkaku/Diaoyu island dispute, a move that threatened the Japanese automobile industry. Due to Japan’s economic dependence on Chinese rare earth magnets, these trade restrictions demonstrate how China can use minerals as economic leverage. For Japan, new tension between the newly elected conservative prime minister Sanae Takaichi and China highlighted this issue further. Takaichi’s cabinet member’s comment on possible Japanese involvement in the hypothetical invasion of Taiwan angered the PRC. In response, China declared an export ban on dual-use technology, a broad term for technology that has both civilian and military uses. These trade restrictions covered 20 major Japanese companies, including Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Kawasaki Heavy Industries, hindering Japan’s electronic hardware and vehicle industries and, in turn, the Japanese economy and military. These cases make it clear that Japan’s economy is heavily reliant on Chinese exports, which is precisely why Japan is so eager to find an alternative. Policy’s Practical Implementation There is still skepticism towards Japan and the feasibility of its commercial mining goal. The required infrastructure of the whole process is one concern. For deep-sea mining to be commercially viable, Japan must transport substantial quantities of rare-Earth mud approximately 1900 km from the mining site to mainland Japan. Currently, the logistics for that are not in place. Additionally, Japan currently only owns one vessel, the “Chikyu,” that could dive deep enough (6000 meters) to extract resources. If Japan wishes to achieve commercialization, it must expand its transportation and expedition infrastructure, which will inevitably increase government costs. The benefits aren’t immediate either. With a new source of raw material, Japan will likely also have to advance its mineral processing industries to achieve maximum efficiency and profit. Thus, the new deep-sea mining industry is likely to endure several years of profit deficit, supported primarily by government subsidies. Furthermore, if Japan were to continue this innovation they must expect resistance. Simply put, if Japan comes close to achieving such a feat, China will not sit idle. Japan must be ready for heightened tension and possible trade wars. Some have pointed out that even if Japan’s deep-sea mining program is to be a success, a regression in Sino-Japanese relations still hinders Japan’s geopolitical position. The simple reason is that the minerals extracted from the ocean floor would still be insufficient to meet the domestic and international demands. This is not a matter of quantity but variety. The best example of this issue is lithium, a mineral essential for all electronics. From what the expedition proves, the seabed around Minami-Torishima lacks lithium deposits. Meaning even if Japan’s deep-sea mining turns out to be a success, they will still be relying on China for refined lithium imports. In short, Japan must find a way to maintain positive relations with China while simultaneously developing an industry to undermine them. This shouldn’t intimidate Japan from further pursuing deep-sea mining. Japan’s decision to invest in deep-sea mining is not misplaced because it allows for more economic independence from China, its rival nation. To circumvent the immense financial and political barriers, Japan will need more international cooperation. As deep-sea mining remains a controversial topic, international support is split. Even as of right now, the idea of deep-sea mining is met with valid concerns about the impact on the surrounding ecosystem. Currently, 40 countries have joined in calling for a moratorium on deep-sea mining, including major powers such as France and the UK. This split in international opinion is something Japan will have to maneuver through. One key partner may be South Korea, despite their historic rivalry, since South Korea also expresses interest in deep-sea mining. Just like Japan, South Korea is one of the 22 parties to hold a contract with the ISA to explore the mineral-rich Clarion-Clipperton zone in the Pacific. Through these contracts, South Korea currently holds three contracts that grant regions in the Pacific and Indian Ocean for exploration and possible mining. Japan and South Korea share the same goal: to decrease over-reliance on foreign exports for critical materials. These parallels suggest collaboration would be meaningful in both technological development and political support. In addition to cooperation with its western neighbor, Japan should also turn its eyes to developing nations in the region. This is something Japan has already begun doing on a small scale in Southeast Asia. Ultimately, Japan’s pursuit of deep-sea mining is a long-term investment with no immediate return. Despite that, it is a necessary attempt to strategically position themselves in this emerging field. Junsei is a sophomore at the University of Washington, studying International Studies and Geography.
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